The seeds of knowledge may be planted in solitude, but must be cultivated in public.
-Samuel Johnson (1709-1784)
I remember my days in junior high English, suffering through class discussions. My English teacher loved to pose questions about books we were reading or material she had assigned. I suffered through this course because I dreaded being called on to express my opinion or to add to the conversation while the entire class and teacher listened to and looked at me. That feeling never totally subsided throughout my academic career, although I did gain more confidence and skill in expressing my opinions and contributing to classroom conversations as I got older.
During my teacher preparation program, I vowed to myself that I would try never to put students "on the spot" during classroom discussions. When I became a teacher, I would call on only those students willing to give their opinions and contribute to the discussion. I would not make my students suffer as I had. However, as a new teacher, I quickly realized (as I'm sure many of you have) that it is difficult to have classroom discussions when only a few students are willing to participate.
I decided to ask several veteran teachers for advice, consult the literature, and reflect on my own experience in classes where I had felt comfortable enough to talk. From all the information I gathered, I came up with a system that helped my students become positively involved in classroom discussions.
The Structural Approach
Whole class discussions rarely involve a great number of students. Research supports this statement. In an observational study of instructor-student interactions conducted by Barnes (1980), the results indicated that students responded only 50 percent of the time when instructors attempted to solicit student participation through whole class questioning. Karp and Yoels (1987) documented that in classes of fewer than forty students, four to five students accounted for 75 percent of all interactions. They also found that in classes with more than forty students, two to three students accounted for over half of the exchanges.
What then could be done to bring about positive changes to my classroom discussions? The solution I looked for was one that would involve as many students as possible and at the same time increase the ease students felt toward participating. I experimented with a variety of approaches but never realized the results I wanted until I attended a seminar given by educational consultant Spencer Kagan, during which he described his approach to cooperative learning, which he called the structural approach.
In his book Cooperative Learning, Kagan (1992) writes that "the Structural Approach to cooperative learning is based on the definition and use of many distinct ways of organizing the interaction of individuals in a classroom, called structures" (5:1). A structure, he says, is a "content-free way of organizing the interaction of individuals in a classroom" (5:1). My approach for implementing classroom discussions used Kagan's idea of structures.
I found that when structures are used as discussion frameworks every student has the opportunity to participate. All students may not have the chance to share their ideas with the entire class, but they are actively involved in discussing their ideas with fellow students.
Simple Structures and How They Work
There are dozens of structures. I have listed seven of them below (I refer to them as "techniques" in the rest of the article) that I used as part of my classroom discussions. It is important to realize that your students will need to be acclimated to becoming active participants in classroom discussions. I suggest starting out by using the simpler techniques (Turn-to-Your-Neighbor, Think-Pair-Share, and Think-Pair-Square-Share) before introducing your students to those that are more complex. The simpler ones will give your students experience in responding to your questions and sharing ideas with classmates.
Technique #1: Turn-to-Your-Neighbor
Description: This is the easiest structure to implement. A problem or question is posed; students turn to a classmate sitting next to them to discuss their answer. Give students a specified amount of time to discuss. I generally give them twenty to thirty seconds.
Discussion Fostered: This structure gives students only a brief amount of time to discuss a particular answer or idea. Typically, it is used when a question or problem posed has a simple answer and you want your students to provide a quick response. The purpose is to give every student the chance to respond and to become used to responding questions or problems.
Teacher Role: After asking a question or posing a problem, monitor your students to determine if equal participation is taking place.
Challenges: In a pair, one student may dominate the discussion. Students may need to be prompted to allow both to have time to discuss. Also, allowing students to discuss in pairs may seem to disrupt the flow of the lesson. The more the structure is used, however, the less distracting it is.
Technique #2: Think-Pair-Share
Description: This technique is similar to Turn-to-Your-- Neighbor. After the teacher poses a problem or question, students think alone about the question for a specified amount of time (fifteen to thirty seconds). Students then form pairs to discuss the problem or question. The time can vary depending on how the discussion is going within the pairs. In a final step, individuals share their thoughts with the entire class. (During the beginning of the school year, I would not randomly call on students to respond-only on those willing to share.)
Discussion Fostered: This structure, in contrast to Turn-- to-Your-Neighbor, is intended to foster short class discussions. Pairs share what they have discussed with the entire class. Other students can then respond to what is said or they can share what they discussed with their own partners.
Teacher Role: After asking the question or posing the problem, monitor your students to determine if equal participation is taking place. Facilitate the whole class's sharing. Challenges: Initially students may be reluctant to share their answers with the whole class. It may be necessary to use this technique several times before they are comfortable with it. You can foster more participation by letting students know that they can share what they said or what their partner said.
Technique #3: Think-Pair-Square-Share
Description: It is obvious from the name that this technique is similar to Think-Pair-Share. A step is added before students share with the class. Have student pairs turn to another pair and discuss what they shared within their first pairs. Then have pairs share with the class.
Discussion Fostered: This technique, like Think-Pair-- Share, fosters short discussions. The discussions will lead into a discussion with the entire class as pairs volunteer to share or are randomly called upon to share. Teacher Role: After asking a question or posing a problem, the teacher monitors the students to determine if equal participation is taking place. The teacher also makes sure that pairs are matched up with other pairs (during the Square segment of the technique). During that segment, the teacher monitors pairs for equal sharing of answers and ideas.
Challenges: Two unique challenges of using this technique are making sure that pairs have equal participation and that constructive sharing takes place. I have found that one pair can dominate another pair, resulting in little discussion between the pairs. If that happens, give each pair a specified amount of time to share their answer. Remind the pairs that they do not have to accept the other pair's response, but they do have to show respect to the pair.
Technique #4: Round Robin
Description: This technique works best if students are in groups (three to five students). Pose a problem or question and have the students go around the circle quickly sharing their ideas or answers. I use this structure to elicit quick responses from my students. They continue to offer answers until I have them stop. (I give my students one opportunity to "pass" on answering.)
A variety to this technique is Round Table. It operates in the same manner; the difference is that students write down their answers or ideas on paper and then pass the paper to another student (usually in a clockwise rotation) to answer, and then on to another student, and so on.
With both techniques, I end with having the groups share their answers and ideas with the class. I vary my approach regarding who shares within each group. Typically I randomly call on an individual to share and allow others in the group to clarify what was said. Discussion Fostered: This technique is great for brainstorming discussions. The purpose is for students to generate as many answers or ideas as possible in a given amount o73, no. 6 (Jul/Aug 2000): p. 331-334f time.
Teacher Role: After asking a question or posing a problem, the teacher monitors the students to determine if equal participation is taking place. The teacher also monitors to see that students do not criticize answers or ideas that are given. Critique of answers and ideas could follow if the teacher wanted to extend the technique. I often allow groups to discuss the answers and ideas they generated after the group has a chance to read what they wrote.
Challenges: The greatest challenges are making sure that every student is involved in the sharing and that answers and ideas are not criticized while the technique is in process. Getting students into groups also can be a slight challenge. If you first have students work in pairs using the other techniques, then they will be better prepared for this technique.
Technique #5: Inside-Outside Circles
Description: This technique takes more time than those previously described. Students stand and face each other in two concentric circles (the inside circle facing out and the outside circle facing in). A problem or question is posed and the students discuss answers and ideas they have with the person standing in front of them. Students can then rotate one person to either the left or right and discuss with the new person who is directly in front of them. You can have them move as many times as you wish. You then randomly call on students to share either what they answered or what they heard from other students.
Discussion Fostered: This technique can foster great discussions. It allows students to move out of their seats and forces them to talk with a variety of students they may not normally talk to during class. It also allows students to encounter a variety of opinions, ideas, and answers. Students have the opportunity to articulate their responses multiple times (if you have them rotate around the circle).
Teacher Role: You will be required to do several things for this technique to work successfully. First, make sure you have space enough in your room to have your students move into two circles. I generally move my desks to the side. Second, split your students into two equal groups (if possible). It doesn't matter if one circle has an extra member. Third, have them get into the circles facing each other and pair up (if you have an extra person then have that person join a pair). Fourth, pose the problem or question. Have them discuss their answers or ideas. You will need to walk around to make sure that equal participation is taking place. Fifth, after a specified amount of time (I vary the time depending on how well the students are interacting), you can either stop and call on students to share or have the outside circle move and discuss with a new partner. Challenges: The challenge with this technique is organizing your students. The first time you use it allow for time to explain what will take place and to get students into the circles. Once you have used the technique, it will be easy to get them going. As with the other techniques, it can be a challenge getting equal participation between the students.
Technique #6: Line-Ups
Description: This technique also requires more time than Turn-to-Your-Neighbor, Think-Pair-Share, and Think-Pair-Square-Share. I have my students line up according to some criterion, such as height, birthdays, or alphabetical order. I pose a question or problem. At this point, I have the line "fold"-that is, the ends move together to form two lines facing each other (if you have an uneven number of students then three students can discuss together). If you had your students line up by height, you now have the tallest facing the shortest. Students then discuss answers with the person in front of them. The discussion can go on as long as you feel it is productive. I have volunteers share with the class, and then I randomly call on students.
Discussion Fostered: This technique can also foster great discussions. Like Inside-Outside Circles, it allows students to move out of their seats and forces them to talk with a variety of students.
Teacher Role: As with Inside-Outside Circles, you will need to make sure you have enough room to have your students form a line and then "fold" the line. Monitoring for equal participation is important as well.
Challenges: Using this technique poses challenges similar to the Inside-Outside Circles technique. The first time you use it, give yourself time to have your students form a line and then "fold" the line. As with the other techniques, it can also be a challenge getting equal participation.
Technique #7. Value Lines
Description: Of the seven techniques, Value Lines generally takes the longest to conduct. It is used when you want students to take a stance on an issue. I read a statement, and then each student stands on one side or the other of an imaginary line. One side of the line is for those agreeing with the statement and the other side is for those disagreeing with it. I then have students Turn-- to-Their-Neighbor (on their side of the line) to discuss why they agreed or disagreed with the statement. Then each pair turns to another pair across the line and discusses why they believe the way they do. Sometimes I randomly call on an individual to share with the class. Students could also share what they heard from individuals with different opinions from theirs.
Discussion Fostered: This technique can lead into lengthy involved, and often hotly debated discussions (especially if the issues are controversial). Like the Inside-Outside Circles technique, students have the opportunity to move out of their seats and are exposed to a variety of different opinions.
Teacher Role: Make sure you have room for the imaginary line. You may also need to facilitate the discussion when pairs with opposing opinions face off.
Challenges: The greatest challenge is monitoring how students interact with other students having opposite opinions. Students need to discuss rather than argue. Another challenge is finding interesting topics that will bring about opposing opinions.
Final Thoughts
Classroom discussions need not be times during which students sink into their seats and hope they are not called on. Using the techniques I have described can result in lively discussions in your classroom. I have used these techniques successfully with fourth graders, junior high students, and university-level students in a variety of subjects. It does take time and practice to become used to incorporating them into your teaching. Students generally find them awkward at first, but they grow to enjoy being actively involved in classroom discussions.
REFERENCES
Barnes, C. 1980. Questions: The untapped resource. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association, Boston.
Kagan, S. 1992. Cooperative learning. San Juan Capistrano, CA: Resources for Teachers.
Karp, D., and W. Yoels. 1987. The college classroom: Some observations on the meanings of student participation. Sociology and Social Research 60: 421-39.
Timothy D. Green is an assistant professor in the Department of Elementary Education at California State University-Fullerton.