A study of values

One always needs to make choices in life, even according to existentialist philosophy, which. states that life itself is ridiculous and absurd. The act of choosing emphasizes one's humanness.

Middle and high school students benefit from class discussions of personal and societal values and the role they play in decision making. Teaching should present real-life, rather than simulated, situations for such discussions so that students can consider the range of choices that exist in difficult situations.

Difficult Choices and Their Consequences

The life story of Soloman Ediger (1876-1940) illustrates the difficulties that accompany major decisions (Mennonite Encyclopedia 1969). Ediger was a teacher of religion in Ohrloff, in the Ukraine, until the study of religion was outlawed. Eventually, when required to join the atheistic league and teach atheism, he left the teaching field and helped with silkworm production on collective farms. In 1934, he was arrested and sent into exile for five years; in broken health, he lived for only a year after his release.

Certainly, his story shows the role of choice in one's life. Ediger had to choose between teaching atheism and leaving teaching for another kind of work. If he had chosen the former, perhaps he would have avoided being exiled to a concentration camp.

There are people, individually or in groups, who possess very strong consciences, which can lead to their having to make difficult decisions. For example, brothers Joseph and Michael Hofer, as Hutterite Mennonites and conscientious objectors, refused to serve in the military during World War I (Mennonite Weekly Review 1993). Their story illustrates the horrific consequences that difficult personal choices can have. Compelled to travel by train from their home in Alexandria, South Dakota, to Camp Lewis in Washington State, they were mocked by other recruits, who forcibly shaved off their hair and beards. When they arrived at Camp Lewis and refused to wear Army uniforms, they were court-martialed and sentenced to thirty-seven years in prison.

During their first four days at the military prison at Alcatraz Island, the brothers were dressed in their underwear only, slept on the cold concrete floor with no blankets, and received no food. Near the end of this period, their hands were tied and hung on an overhead bar, with their feet skimming the floor. By the fifth day, the Hofer brothers were seriously ill. They were then taken to Fort Leavenworth, Kansas, where they were chained together and forced to stand outdoors most of the cold night in their underwear. As a result of this treatment, Joseph died after several days, and Michael's death soon followed. Joseph was survived by his wife and two small children, and Michael by his wife and child. A third brother, David, also a conscientious objector and subjected to similar torture, survived the ordeal and wrote about what had happened to his brothers. At the time, many people in American society believed that the Hofer brothers were unpatriotic for not fighting for their nation.

It is obvious that military officials and the Hutterites did not understand each other's value systems. From its perspective, the military has as its goal the defense of the United States from enemies, foreign and domestic, and drafting young men during times of conflict (or potential conflict) among nations is necessary for defense purposes. On the other hand, since 1525, Mennonites have emphasized pacifism in the face of conflict. Mennonite groups hold that the commandment "Thou shalt not kill" is meant to be taken literally, as is the message from the Sermon on the Mount that you should love your enemies and do good to those who hate you. The deaths of the Hofer brothers led numerous Hutterites to move from the United States to Canada during and after World War I.

In regard to issues involving such opposing values, teachers can discuss the following questions with students:

1. Do you have strong feelings about changes that should be made in society?

2. How should any individual or group go about working for major changes in society?

3. How important is conscience as a concept in American society?

Values Discussion in the Classroom

Many events in society, regularly reported on the news, provide the basis for values clarification in the classroom. In such discussions, teachers should stress higher levels of cognition. They must guide students to learn to separate accurate from inaccurate statements, as well as important from unimportant information. Problem solving can truly be in the offing when values are studied because students will need to

* identify relevant problems involving values;

* gather information that bears on the selected problems;

* develop a hypothesis in response to the problem (hypotheses are tentative and subject to change and modification); and

* make modifications and changes as the evidence warrants.

Which societal issues lend themselves to a study of values? Abortion is one such issue. The pro-life and pro-choice positions regarding abortion remain relevant and emotionally charged. Each student will need to clarify his or her values pertaining to a position. On the one hand, pro-life advocates believe that abortion violates the choice of the unborn to be born and that abortion is murder. Pro-choice supporters, on the other hand, believe that the woman carrying the fetus should have the choice of whether to bring the fetus to term. The health of the mother the circumstances of how she got pregnant, and her economic circumstances are other factors that pro-choice advocates believe should be taken into consideration. Emotions truly run deep on both sides of the debate.

Questions for classroom discussion include the following:

1. Who should determine what is moral in society?

2. How can one know if what is advocated by individuals or groups is ethical and just?

3. How much influence should lobbying groups have in promoting their ideas?

Capital punishment is another volatile issue that students can examine. It is believed by some people to deter crime but by others to be cruel and unusual punishment. Each side has its many dilemmas and ramifications. The dilemmas are complex because of the diverse values that people have. Are there some values that people should adhere to? Furthermore,

1. How is the sanctity of life determined? Which criteria are salient here?

2. Is a life sentence a lesser or a greater punishment than capital punishment?

3. How should offenders be punished or rehabilitated for their misdeeds?

Another issue that can be explored in the classroom is the rights of biological parents versus those of foster parents who are raising a child. In recent lawsuits by biological parents seeking to regain custody of children, judicial decisions have tended to place children with the biological parents, even if the children have lived with the foster parents for as long as three or four years.

The question arises: Who should have full custody of an infant or young child in such circumstances? (This issue with its accompanying values may be a less emotional one for most students to examine than the pro-life/pro-choice controversy.) Questions for discussion include the following:

1. How much should the interests of the child be emphasized in deciding who will bring up the child?

2. The interests of three categories of individuals--child, biological parents, foster parents--are involved in these decisions. How can these interests all be balanced?

3. Are there any relevant criteria that can be used in making the decision?

In an equally emotional issue involving the other end of the life spectrum, Dr. Jack Kevorkian has received much notoriety because of the aid he has provided to terminally ill people who wanted to commit suicide. He believes that individuals who are terminally ill and who can make the decision in a rational manner to die should be allowed to choose. In England, the organization EXIT also holds that terminally ill persons should be able to make their own decisions as to when to die. Class discussion on this subject might well address the following questions:

1. When does life end for any individual?

2. How do you interpret the phrase quality of life? How does it differ from quantity of life? When does quality of life end?

3. Who should determine when a terminally ill person's life should end? Some students will maintain that one should live until natural causes terminate one's life, regardless of the pain involved.

A final subject for values clarification in the classroom might be the issues involved in caring for elderly persons or those with disabilities. My mother had a disabling stroke when I was in the fifth grade. She could not speak well enough to carry on a conversation, walk, or move her right hand. These conditions persisted until she died twenty-two years later. Instead of nurturing her family, she was nurtured at home by her children and husband. In other families, grown sons and daughters face similar situations and are not able to care for disabled or elderly parents. Time, equipment, and qualified persons to provide necessary care simply may not be available at home.

Ways of caring for the elderly and persons with disabilities have provoked lengthy discussions. Much is written about such individuals' needing to be put into nursing homes and about the guilty feelings that sons, daughters, or parents may have as a result. Students can discuss numerous questions concerning a family's handling of the problems of its elderly or disabled members:

1. How should elderly people and the younger person with disabilities be taken care of? Here, a clear definition of elderly as well as disability must be developed.

2. How can life in nursing homes be made purposeful for its residents?

3. What might be done to use the services and talents of retired people in order to show respect for the skills they still have to offer?

Conclusion

Individuals employ values when making moral decisions. With teacher guidance, pupils need to look at their value systems and decide what they prize most highly in life. Choices might be based on what benefits the personal self. They might also be made on the basis of perceived a priori content, such as the Ten Commandments or the Sermon on the Mount. The ideals expressed in these religious pronouncements may also be stated in secular language. Thus, murder, stealing, and violence have been negative concepts in all cultures and places.

Whether we refer to a religious or secular context, however, interpretations will always need to be made by involved human beings. In the end, we may choose a flexible, open-ended approach to values, whereby each situation is seen as unique and absolute values do not exist. Choices made from this approach will vary from one situation to another, but the morality of the choice made is still paramount.

In determining their values, pupils need to discuss points such as the intent of the choice made versus the consequences of an act or deed. In a society of racism and lawlessness, there is an increased need for pupils to study values and their uses in school and in society.

REFERENCES

Mennonite encyclopedia. 1969. Hillsboro, Kansas: Mennonite Brethren Publishing House.

Mennonite weekly review. 1993. Newton, Kansas: Herald Publishing Co. (Dec. 2).