|
TITLE: |
Reflecting on the Homework Ritual: Assignments and Designs |
|
SOURCE: |
Theory into Practice 43 no3 205-12 Summ 2004 |
ABSTRACT
A look at the popular press and books on homework reveals that this nightly
ritual is a common complaint of many students and a source of tension among
families. Teachers hold the key to changing homework processes and can help to
reduce such tensions. This article highlights issues related to general
homework practice--including time spent on homework, communication between the
home and school, and the purposes of homework. In addition, the article
includes a discussion of the benefits and design of a specific type of
interactive homework called Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS). By
reflecting on homework practices and implementing a regular schedule of
interactive homework, teachers have the potential to engage students and
families in more positive homework experiences.
It is 7:00 p.m. at the Landis residence, and the three
children start the nightly homework ritual. Carolyn, a high school junior, is
tired from track practice as she starts a 4-hour stint of homework that
includes solving 50 trigonometry problems, reading four chapters of a novel for
English class, and studying for an anatomy and physiology test. John, a
seventh-grade student, struggles with his math assignment and asks his parents
for help. His mother actually understands this topic, but finds herself
frustrated with the situation because John says that his mother "is not
explaining it like the teacher did." Finally, Gwyn, a fifth-grade student,
watches an evening television program until her mother asks her if she too has
homework to complete. Gwyn suddenly remembers that she has a math assignment,
but her book sits in a locker at school.
ALTHOUGH ALL FAMILIES ARE UNIQUE, most parents have
probably encountered situations like these: the burden of too much homework,
parents uncertain about how to help, and forgotten assignments. Because of its
pervasiveness, homework and related family tensions are a common topic in the
popular press (i.e., Radencich & Schumm, 1997; Ratnesar, 1999). This article
focuses on topics that teachers should reflect on in order to determine how the
homework process unfolds for students and families, with an emphasis on the
value of interactive homework. Specific issues that are relevant to individual
teacher and school-wide plans for student homework include the following: (a)
student time spent on homework, (b) communication between home and school about
homework policies, (c) the instructional, communicative, and political purposes
of homework, (d) similarities and differences between interactive and
independent homework, (e) homework design that encourages student and family
interactions, and (f) resources and steps needed to develop a full program of
interactive homework. Table 1 provides additional reflection points for
educators on each of the homework issues addressed in the article. Such
reflections and related actions can help maximize the effectiveness of homework
for student development and achievement.
Student Time Spent on Homework
Ask a group of students what they dread most about
homework and you are likely to hear "it takes up too much time."
National research on time devoted to homework indicates that only a few
students spend more than 2 hours on homework. Specifically, 5%, 8%, and 12% of
9-, 13-, and 17-year-olds, respectively, reported completing more than 2 hours
of homework per night. The majority of students, however, spend less than 2
hours per night. At these same ages, 12%, 26%, and 23% of students spend 1-2
hours, and 53%, 37%, and 26% of students devote less than 1 hour to the nightly
ritual. A significant proportion, 30-40% of students, report spending no time
on homework--either because they were not assigned any or did not complete it
(U.S. Department of Education, 2001).
It is interesting to compare these student estimates to
recommendations from the National Parent Teacher Association (PTA) and National
Education Association (NEA) about time spent on homework. An online homework
guide jointly produced by these groups suggests that homework in grades K-2 not
exceed 20-30 minutes per night. For students in grades 3-6, the recommendation
is 30-60 minutes per day, and for older students, the amount varies by subject
(
Communication About Homework Between
School and Home
In a study of middle school students, parents helped
their children with homework an average of 1-3 times per week, and reported
checking homework an average of 4 times per week (Eccles & Harold, 1996). However,
students also reported that teachers asked them to request parental assistance
only once or twice a month, on such things as checking homework, studying for
tests, or working on projects. These studies reveal that, whether they are
guided by teachers or not, many parents are consistently involved in student
homework.
Though homework is an expected and accepted part of
school life, there are surprisingly few regular communications and guidelines
between school and home about the homework process. In a study of 1,011 middle
schools, most principals (more than 75%) stated that fewer than half of their
students' parents received regular information from teachers about how to help
their children with homework (Epstein & Lee, 1995).
Studies also indicate that parents know they sometimes
provide a form of help that is negative or inappropriate (Cooper, Lindsay,
& Nye, 1999), often feel unprepared to help with certain subjects
(Hoover-Dempsey, Bassler, & Burow, 1995), and sometimes spend much of their
time trying to improve or make their children's homework more interesting (Xu
& Corno, 1998). These realities speak to the need for better communication
and guidance from school to home about teachers' expectations and how parents
might manage homework interactions.
Purposes of Homework
Why do teachers assign homework? In leading homework
workshops with hundreds of educators, I find that teachers usually hesitate to
answer because they are rarely asked to identify their reasons for particular
homework assignments.
Most teachers assign homework for one of the following
10 purposes: practice, preparation, participation, personal development,
parent-teacher communication, parent-child relations, peer interactions,
policy, public relations, and punishment.(n1) These 10 purposes serve three
main functions: instructional, communicative, and political.
Instructional purposes
The homework purposes readily named by teachers are
those that serve an instructional function: practice, preparation for the next
class, participation in learning, and personal development. Most people have
experienced some form of practice or preparation assignment in a math course
that required completing problems 1-25 odd, even, or all. Teachers most often
assign homework for the purpose of practicing a skill learned in class and to
help prepare for the next day's lesson (Cooper, 2001; Polloway, Epstein,
Bursuck, Jayanthi, & Cumblad, 1994).
Homework may also provide an opportunity for students
to participate in learning and demonstrate their knowledge of particular skills
and ideas. Most classroom teachers will acknowledge that some students enjoy
talking or answering in class, while others prefer to process information
quietly. Some of these quiet students may understand the concept equally as
well as the vocal students, but others remain silent because they do not
understand or lack interest. Homework, therefore, offers each student the
chance to individually participate and demonstrate understanding of the topic.
Personal development is another instructional purpose.
Not surprisingly, students often compare the homework process to doing
household chores. With development, students learn that homework is their own
responsibility to complete, and that their parents and teachers should not need
to remind them about their assignments (Warton, 1997, 2001).
Communicative purposes
The next three purposes of homework serve a
communicative function among students, families, and teachers. Though less
often used by most educators, teachers may develop assignments that encourage
parent-teacher communication, parent-child relations, and peer interactions.
Some teachers ask students to review a test or project with a parent to keep
the parent aware of how the child is performing in a particular subject.
Regular assignments intended for parent-teacher communication update parents on
children's progress and prevent surprises at report card time.
Other interactive assignments may require that a
student explore a class topic further by involving a parent or other family
partner (Bell et al., 1999; Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2002; Van Voorhis &
Epstein, 2002). Finally, teachers may increase student interest by assigning
homework that requires working with a friend or group of peers to exchange
ideas, explore other perspectives, and showcase strengths within a group
(Corno, 2000; Leone & Richards, 1989).
Political purposes
Homework serves a political function when it is
assigned to fulfill a policy mandate or satisfy public expectations. Homework
signals parents and the public that a school has rigorous academic standards
and expectations for student work. Some districts and most schools have
policies that detail homework frequency, duration per night, procedures, and
roles of parents in the homework process (Roderique, Polloway, Cumblad,
Epstein, Bursuck, 1994).
The last identified purpose, punishment, has long been
recognized as a reason for assigning homework, but educators today denounce the
use of homework for this purpose. Some students and parents view certain
homework activities as punishing tasks because they are tedious,
time-consuming, and/or poorly communicated (Corno, 2000). But teachers
interested in making homework a more positive experience should avoid using it
as punishment.
In designing homework assignments, teachers should keep
in mind that one activity may satisfy several purposes and functions.
Interactive homework activities, for example, may address many purposes,
including practice of a skill, preparation for the next class, personal
responsibility, participation, parentchild relations, parent-teacher
communications, and school policy on weekly homework.
Interactive Versus Independent Homework
Interactive and independent homework serve important
functions in a comprehensive homework process. Both types of assignments, when
well designed, (a) link to topics and skills in the curriculum, (b) receive
feedback from the teacher (i.e., check for completion, comments, grades), and
(c) are a student's responsibility to complete (Epstein & Van Voorhis,
2002). Unlike independent homework, teachers rarely use interactive homework.
The sections that follow describe the benefits and design of interactive
homework to encourage more frequent use of this homework strategy in
conjunction with independent homework.
Teachers Involve Parents In Schoolwork
(TIPS)
There are many types of interactive homework
assignments that ask students to share their work at home. One approach is the
Teachers Involve Parents In Schoolwork (TIPS) interactive homework process
(Epstein, Salinas, & Jackson, 1995). Two main differences exist between
TIPS interactive homework assignments and independent work. First, in contrast
to independent assignments that require no interaction with others, all TIPS
assignments are written to promote conversations between child and parent or
other family partner (e.g., grandparent, older sibling, or other person who is
willing to explore the topic with the student). For example, a middle school
TIPS math assignment may instruct students to practice computing averages. The
interactive section may direct students to interview four family partners or
friends about how much time each spends (a) at work or school and (b) sleeping.
The student then computes the average work time and sleep time of these
contacts and shares the result with a family partner. In this example, students
have the opportunity to interact with the family partner about a skill learned
in class and to extend the concept in the real world. The family partner is not
asked or expected to teach the skill of computing averages.
The second main difference between TIPS interactive
assignments and independent work relates to family-friendly assignment
schedules. Because TIPS assignments require the student to talk with a family
partner, teachers must respect the time it takes to schedule and conduct the
interaction. In the case of independent work, teachers may assign an activity
on a Tuesday and expect students to complete and return it the following day.
For interactive assignments, however, teachers must allow a few days for the
student to complete the assignments. Assigning the activity over a weekend may
be particularly helpful because parents at all school levels reported having
more time to be involved in their children's homework then (Connors &
Epstein, 1994; Dauber & Epstein, 1993).
Research on TIPS interactive assignments
Researchers have conducted studies on the TIPS
interactive homework process in math (Balli, 1998; Balli, Demo, & Wedman,
1998), language arts (Epstein, Simon, & Salinas, 1997), and science (Van
Voorhis, 2001, 2003) in the middle grades. Two studies demonstrated that the
TIPS design and directions for family involvement prompted higher levels of
family involvement than in non-TIPS subjects (Balli, 1998; Van Voorhis, 2003).
These studies showed the importance of subject-specific family involvement for
subject-specific results for students.
Two of the studies found that TIPS assignments helped
increase student achievement (Epstein, Simon, & Salinas, 1997; Van Voorhis,
2003). In a study of sixth and eighth graders in an urban school district,
Epstein and her colleagues found that, after accounting for prior writing
scores, parent participation on weekly TIPS assignments added significantly to
students' writing scores as the year progressed. Completing more TIPS
assignments also positively influenced student report card grades after
controlling for prior grades and attendance (Epstein, Simon, & Salinas,
1997).
Van Voorhis' (2003) study of sixth-and eighth-grade
students in a suburban school split the students into two groups with the same
homework content. One group of students had detailed guidelines in their
assignments for student and family interaction (TIPS), while the other group
had no family involvement guidelines (non-TIPS). Students in the TIPS group
earned significantly higher report card grades after 18 weeks (1 TIPS
assignment per week) than did non-TIPS students. This effect was significant
after accounting for prior science achievement and percentage of homework
returned.
Though additional studies on TIPS should follow, these
results show the benefits of TIPS for increasing family involvement in homework
and student achievement. Such studies require strong collaborations between
teachers and researchers but have the potential to contribute much to
understanding how to optimize parent involvement and student achievement.
Characteristics of a TIPS interactive
homework assignment
Though TIPS activities vary in form and content
depending on grade level and subject area, there are four critical components
of every TIPS assignment. These include (a) a brief letter to the family
partner that includes the objectives of the assignment, (b) clear instructions and
directions for students to involve a family partner in particular conversations
and activities, (c) a home-to-school communication section, and (d) a two-page
limit (ASCD, 2001; Van Voorhis & Epstein, 2002).
Each TIPS assignment begins with a brief letter written
by the teacher that explains in simple, non-technical language the purpose or
objective of the assignment. The letter also includes spaces for the student to
fill in the due date and sign the letter, a reminder of the student's
responsibility for the assignment.
Critical to the success of the assignment and essential
for encouraging parent involvement are directions for the roles of the student
and family partner in each section of the assignment. For example, instructions
for an interactive middle school math activity may direct the student to,
"Gather information from your family partner, and then compute the
averages on your own. Show your work for each problem. Then, explain one
example to your family partner." (Epstein, Salinas, & Jackson, 1995).
Educators cannot assume that students and parents know who should play various
roles. Also, interactive assignments are the responsibility of the student and
should not require parents to teach school skills. The activities offer
students an opportunity to share what they are learning in class with a parent
or family partner. If roles are left unspecified, parents may assume too much
responsibility and students too little. Or, students may not know how to
interact with a parent and, thus, miss an opportunity to have a conversation.
By clearly identifying roles and guiding students' questions and activities,
teachers maximize the opportunity for a positive family interaction and may
encourage confidence and self-efficacy in the roles that each person plays
(Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001).
Each TIPS assignment includes a home-to-school
communication section to encourage feedback from family partners about the
interaction. For example, the home-to-school communication section for TIPS
math in the elementary grades asks parents to identify whether or not the child
understood the skill or needs additional help. The home-to-school communication
section for all subjects in the middle grades asks parents whether or not the
child understood the activity and could explain it, if the activity was an
enjoyable experience, and if the parent discovered what the child is learning
in class. All home-to-school communication sections include space for comments
and the parent/family partner signature.
Finally, each TIPS assignment is designed to fit on the
front and back of a single sheet of paper. Limiting the size and scope prevents
educators from assigning burdensome projects for family interactions. One TIPS
study involved a survey of middle school students and parents about the time
students spent on TIPS science assignments. Eighty-nine percent of the parents
surveyed reported that their children spent 45 minutes or less on each
assignment. Student's estimates were lower, with more than 80% of students reporting
that they spent 30 minutes or less on each assignment per week. Additionally,
90% of students reported that, through the TIPS assignments, they were able to
talk about science work with a family partner (Van Voorhis, 2001). This
suggests that it is possible for teachers to design assignments that engage
students and families in meaningful homework that takes a reasonable amount of
time each week.
Developing a program of interactive
homework
To complete the steps required for a TIPS interactive homework
program, school faculty may need to address issues related to the school's
overall homework policy. Interactive homework should be one part of a teacher's
homework plan, should be assigned no more than once per week, and should
complement, not replace, other forms and purposes of homework.
The first step in developing a full TIPS program is for
the school faculty or grade level teams of teachers to discuss the subject and
grade levels for which TIPS will be used. Once decided, a team of capable teachers
should be identified to develop the assignments to fit the school's curriculum
for the selected grade levels and subjects (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2002).
The team examines the sequence of skills and concepts taught in each unit
throughout the year. Teachers choose one topic for each week's (or every other
week's) work that could lend itself to a meaningful student-parent interaction.
These topics represent the content of the TIPS assignments.
The next step in the process requires that teachers develop
or adapt TIPS activities for the selected topics. As a general guide, it takes
about 4 hours to develop a TIPS activity, including time for teachers to design
the assignment, edit each other's work, and enter the activity in the computer
with graphics in an attractive format (Epstein, Salinas, & Jackson, 1995).
By putting activities in a computer file, other teachers can customize
particular assignments for their students and classes. Because these steps take
time and teacher expertise, schools or districts could identify curricular
development funds to pay teachers for their design time during the summer
months. Districts should support this development because the TIPS activities
may be shared with teachers in other schools that follow the same curriculum
objectives (Epstein & Van Voorhis, 2002). Therefore, the work of a few
educators during a summer may benefit many teachers, students, and families for
several years.
Teachers conducting a TIPS program must orient students
and families to the interactive homework process. Methods for communicating
roles and expectations to students and parents may include letters to the home,
discussions with students in the classroom, and information at open houses or
parent meetings. Teachers begin by assigning TIPS on a regular (e.g., once
weekly or every other week), family-friendly schedule. Like any other homework
assignment, teachers should evaluate the students' work and review comments and
questions that parents write in the home-to-school communication section.
During this process, teachers may also collect notes on how to improve and
revise each activity. If activities are saved on a computer, modifications and
improvements will be easy to make for the next school year.
As with any learning process, it is important to
periodically evaluate the progress of the TIPS program. Teachers can
troubleshoot challenges together and share successful strategies. Students and
family partners can provide valuable feedback about time spent on the
assignments and the overall effectiveness of the program through a TIPS survey
each semester. This feedback can inform faculty decisions about TIPS from year
to year.
Conclusion
Homework remains a central part of the school
curriculum that affects students, teachers, and families. Despite this reality,
too little attention is paid to homework assignments and designs. Professional
development time should be allocated for teachers to discuss and learn about
key variables such as: student time spent on homework, the purposes of
homework, communication between home and school about homework policies, and
interactive homework activities. Such time investments would go far in
promoting the quality of the homework experience by sustaining student
interest, learning, and useful communications with all families.
Note
(n1.) For more detailed descriptions of the purposes of
homework, see Epstein (2001) and Epstein & Van Voorhis (2001).
Table 1 Homework Issues and Reflection
Points for Educators
Legend for Chart:
A - Issue
B - Reflection Points
A
B
Time on Homework
Consider polling the students in your classes
about how much time each of them spends on
a particular homework assignment. Compare
their reports to your own estimates of how
long you thought the assignment should take.
Talk one-on-one with students who seem to
spend much more time than the average and
those not spending enough time on assignments.
Also, reflect on your homework expectations for
how long low-, average-, and high-ability
students should spend on homework and whether
or not each of the groups has appropriate
opportunities to practice and extend their
skills through homework.
Communication
Think about ways that you currently communicate
with families about student homework
expectations and parental roles. How might
you improve these efforts so parents can be
more confident about the types of involvement
that best support student learning?
Purposes
Think about the various purposes of the
homework activities you assign. Consider planning
a series of assignments to address several
different purposes. Discuss or create a
school homework policy and consider coordinating
which teachers assign homework on a
given night to avoid many project deadlines
occurring simultaneously.
Interactive Homework
Think about how often and in what ways you ask
your students to involve a parent or
family partner in homework assignments. Consider
whether you allow adequate time for
students to interact with their families.
Characteristics of TIPS Assignments
Review or create directions for an assignment that
requires parental involvement. Check to be sure
that you specify the roles and responsibilities
of the student and family partner.
TIPS Program Development
Discuss ways teachers orient students and families
to homework policies and expectations. Share
current examples of interactive assignments that
students enjoy, and discuss the possibility of
developing a full program of interactive homework.
References
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
(2001). How to make homework more meaningful by involving parents (Tape 10)
[Videotape].
Balli, S.J. (1998). When mom and dad help: Student
reflections on parent involvement in homework. Journal of Research and
Development in Education, 31 (3), 142-146.
Balli, S.J., Demo, D.H., & Wedman, J.F. (1998).
Family involvement with children's homework: An intervention in the middle
grades. Family Relations, 47, 149-157.
Connors, L.J., & Epstein, J.L. (1994). Taking
stock: Views of teachers, parents, and students on school, family, and
community partnerships in high schools (Report 25).
Cooper, H. (2001). The battle over homework: Common
ground for administrators, teachers, and parents (2nd ed.).
Cooper, H., Lindsay, J.J., & Nye, B. (1999).
Homework in the home: How students, family, and parenting style differences
relate to the homework process. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 25,
464-487.
Corno, L. (2000). Looking at homework differently. The
Elementary School Journal, 100 (5), 529-548.
Dauber, S.L., & Epstein, J.L. (1993). Parents' attitudes
and practices of involvement in inner-city elementary and middle schools. In N.
Chavkin (Ed.), Families and schools in a pluralistic society (pp. 53-71).
Eccles, J.S., & Harold, R.D. (1996). Family
involvement in children's and adolescents' schooling. In A. Booth & J.F.
Dunn (Eds.), Family-school links: How do they affect educational outcomes? (pp.
3 35).
Epstein, J.L. (2001). School, family, and community
partnerships: Preparing educators and improving schools.
Epstein, J.L., & Lee, S. (1995). National patterns
of school and family connections in the middle grades. In B. Ryan, G. Adams, T.
Gulotta, R. Weissberg, & R. Hampton (Eds.), The family-school connection:
Theory, research, and practice (pp. 109-154).
Epstein, J.L.,
Epstein, J.L., Simon, B.S., &
Epstein, J.L., & Van Voorhis, F.L. (2000). Teachers
Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) interactive homework training materials.
Epstein, J.L., & Van Voorhis, F.L. (2001). More
than minutes: Teachers' roles in designing homework. Educational Psychologist,
36 (3), 181-193.
Epstein, J.L., & Van Voorhis, F.L. (2002). How to
implement Teachers Involve Parents in Schoolwork (TIPS) processes. In J.
Epstein, M. Sanders, B. Simon, K. Salinas, N. Jansorn, & F. Van Voorhis
(Eds.), School, family, and community partnerships: Your handbook for action
(pp. 291-323).
Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., Bassler, O.C., & Burow, R.
(1995). Parents' reported involvement in students' homework: Strategies and
practices. The Elementary School Journal, 95 (5), 435-450.
Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., Battiato, A.C.,
Leone, C.M., & Richards, M.H. (1989). Classwork and
homework in early adolescence: The ecology of achievement. Journal of Youth and
Adolescence, 18 (6), 531-548.
Polloway, E.A., Epstein, M.H., Bursuck, W.D., Jayanthi,
M., & Cumblad, C. (1994). Homework practices of general education teachers.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 27 (8), 500-509.
Radencich, M.C., & Schumm, J.S. (1997). How to help
your child with homework: Every caring parent's guide to encouraging good study
habits and ending the homework wars.
Ratnesar, R. (1999, January 25). The homework ate my
family: Kids are dazed, parents are stressed. Time, 55-63.
Roderique, T.W., Polloway, E.A., Cumblad, C., Epstein,
M.H., & Bursuck, W.D. (1994). Homework: A survey of policies in the
Van Voorhis, F.L. (2001). Interactive science homework:
An experiment in home and school connections. NASSP Bulletin, 85 (627), 20-32.
Van Voorhis, F.L. (2003). Interactive homework in
middle school: Effects on family involvement and science achievement. Journal
of Educational Research, 96 (6), 323-338.
Van Voorhis, F.L., & Epstein, J.L. (2002). Teachers
Involve Parents in Schoolwork interactive homework [CD].
Warton, P.M. (1997). Learning about responsibility:
Lessons from homework. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 67, 213-221.
Warton, P.M. (2001). The forgotten voices in homework:
Views of students. Educational Psychologist, 36 (3), 155-165.
Xu, J., & Corno, L. (1998). Case studies of
families doing third-grade homework. Teachers College Record, 100 (2), 402-436.
ADDED MATERIAL
Frances L. Van Voorhis is a consultant for the Center
on School, Family, and Community Partnerships at Johns Hopkins University.